Firmament and the Shape of the World in Early Christianity

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Direct teaching

... was nearer to God, before God said, "Let there be light." The heaven, therefore, being like a dome-shaped covering, enclosed matter that was like a clod. And so another prophet, Isaiah by name, spoke in these words: "It is God who made the heavens as a vault, and stretched them out as a tent to dwell in," as Isaiah 40:22 says. Then the command of God, that is, His Word, shining like a lamp in an enclosed room, lit up everything under heaven, when He had made light separate from the world. And God called the light Day, and the darkness Night. For man would not have been able to call the light Day, or the darkness Night, nor even to give names to the other things, if he had not received the names from God, who made the things themselves. Therefore, at the very beginning of the history and origin of the world, Holy Scripture did not speak about this firmament that we see, but about another heaven, which is invisible to us. After that, this heaven that we see was called firmament. And to it half of the water was taken up, so that it might serve mankind for rains, showers, and dew. And half of the water was left on earth for rivers, springs, and seas. Then, since the water covered a

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Supporting witness

The heaven, therefore, being like a dome-shaped covering, comprehended matter which was like a clod.

Tertullian, Against Hermogenes Direct teaching

..." in Genesis 1:1. Then it goes on to present its arrangement: how God separated the water below the firmament from the water above the firmament, in Genesis 1:7, and called the firmament heaven, which was the very thing He had created in the beginning. In the same way, it later speaks about man: "And God created man; in the image of God made He him," in Genesis 1:27. Then it reveals how He made him: "And God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul," in Genesis 2:7. Now this is clearly the right and fitting way for the narrative to proceed. First comes an introductory statement. Then the full details follow. First the subject is named. Then it is described. How absurd the other understanding of the passage is. Before first mentioning its subject, that is, Matter, and without even giving us its name, it suddenly announced its form and condition. It described its quality before mentioning its existence. It pointed out the shape of the thing formed, but hid its name. But how much more believable is our view. We hold that Scripture only adds the arrangement of the subject after it has first properly descr

Tertullian, Against Hermogenes Supporting witness

how that God both separated the water which was below the firmament from that which was above the firmament, Genesis 1:7 and called the firmament heaven, — the very thing He had created in the beginning.

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Direct teaching

...r all things. That is, heaven covers all things. At the command of God it had been made firm into a firmament from the flowing material of the waters, so that the strong hardness that divides the midst of the waters which formerly covered the earth might sustain, as if on its back, the weight of the water lying above it, its strength being established by frost. And moreover, wheels lie below, that is, the seasons, by which all the members of the world are always being rolled onward. Feet are added, by which these things do not stand still forever, but pass onward. And throughout all their limbs they are set with eyes, for the works of God must be looked upon with ever-watchful attention. In the midst, at the heart of these things, there is a fire of glowing embers, either because this world of ours is hurrying toward the fiery day of judgment, or because all the works of God are fiery and are not dark, but flourish. Or again, lest, because these things had arisen from earthly beginnings, they should by nature be inactive from the stiffness of their origin, the hot nature of an inward spirit was added to all things. And this nature, joined together with the cold bodies, might ser

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Supporting witness

...r all things. That is, heaven covers all things. At the command of God it had been made firm into a firmament from the flowing material of the waters, so that the strong hardness that divides the midst of the waters which had before covered the earth might sustain, as if on its back, the weight of the water above it, its strength being established by frost. And below are wheels, that is, the seasons, by which all the members of the world are always being rolled onward. Feet, as it were, are added, by which these things do not stand still forever, but pass onward. And throughout all their parts they are studded with eyes. For the works of God must be viewed with ever-watchful attention. In the midst of these things there is a fire of embers, either because this world of ours is hurrying toward the fiery day of judgment, or because all the works of God are fiery and are not dark, but flourishing. Or again, lest, because these things had arisen from earthly beginnings, they should naturally be inactive because of the rigidity of their origin, the hot nature of an inward spirit was added to all things. And this nature, joined together with the cold bodies, might serve the purpose of

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Supporting witness

that is, the heaven covering all things, which at the command of God had been consolidated into a firmament from the fluent material of the waters, that the strong hardness that divides the midst of the waters that covered the earth before, might sustain as if on its back the weight of the superincumbent water, its strength being established by the frost.

Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Book IV Background

that hand which, by its own measure, spreads out the measure of the heavens, and which comprises in its hollow the earth with the abysses;

Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Supporting witness

and Jupiter in prayer first gave the name of heaven to that which was called firmament, and he burnt entire the victim which he there offered in sacrifice.

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Supporting witness

And God called the firmament Heaven: and God saw that it was good.

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Supporting witness

And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament.

Hippolytus, Exegetical Fragments Supporting witness

And God made the firmament; and God divided between the water which was under the firmament, and the water above the firmament: and it was so.

Athenagoras, A Plea for the Christians Direct teaching

...ot consist of parts. But if, on the contrary, each of them exists separately, since He who made the world is above the things created, and about the things He has made and set in order, where can the other or the rest be? For if the world, being made spherical, is enclosed within the circles of heaven, and the Creator of the world is above the things created, managing that by His providential care for these, what place is there for the second god, or for the other gods? For he is not in the world, because it belongs to the other. Nor is he about the world, for God the Maker of the world is above it. But if he is neither in the world nor about the world, for all that surrounds it is occupied by this one, where is he? Is he above the world and the first God? In another world, or about another? But if he is in another or about another, then he is not about us, for he does not govern the world. Nor is his power great, for he exists in a limited space. But if he is neither in another world, for all things are filled by the other, nor about another, for all things are occupied by the other, he clearly does not exist at all, for there is no place in which he can be. Or what does he do,

Athenagoras, A Plea for the Christians Supporting witness

For if the world, being made spherical, is confined within the circles of heaven, and the Creator of the world is above the things created, managing that by His providential care of these, what place is there for the second god, or for the other gods?

Athenagoras, A Plea for the Christians Supporting witness

Beautiful without doubt is the world, excelling, as well in its magnitude as in the arrangement of its parts, both those in the oblique circle and those about the north, and also in its spherical form.

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Supporting witness

who bounds the circle of the earth, and those that dwell in it like locusts;

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Supporting witness

who bounds the circle of the earth, and those that dwell in it like locusts;

Minucius Felix, Octavius Supporting witness

Behold the heaven itself, how broadly it is expanded, how rapidly it is whirled around, either as it is distinguished in the night by its stars, or as it is lightened in the day by the sun, and you will know at once how the marvellous and divine balance of the Supreme Governor is engaged therein.

Arnobius, Against the Heathen Background

For whatever is round, and bounded on every side by the circumference of a solid sphere, has no beginning, no end;

Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Background

for that could not possibly be anything but round, which was held enclosed by that which was round.

Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Supporting witness

What line of reasoning, then, led them to the idea of the antipodes? They saw the courses of the stars traveling toward the west. They saw that the sun and the moon always set in the same direction, and rise from the same direction. But they did not understand what contrivance regulated their courses, or how they returned from the west to the east. Instead, they supposed that heaven itself sloped downward in every direction, which it had to appear to do because of its immense breadth. So they thought that the world is round like a ball, and they imagined that heaven revolves in keeping with the motion of the heavenly bodies. Thus, when the stars and sun have set, they are carried back to the east by the very swift motion of the world. Therefore they also made bronze spheres, as if after the pattern of the world, and engraved on them certain monstrous images, which they said were constellations. It followed, then, from this roundness of heaven, that the earth was enclosed in the middle of its curved surface. But if this were so, the earth itself also had to be like a globe. For what was enclosed by something round could not possibly be anything but round. But if the earth also were round, it would necessarily happen that it would present the same appearance to every part of heaven. That is, it would raise up mountains, spread out plains, and have level seas. And if this were so...

Origen, De Principiis (On First Principles) Background

For another heaven and another earth are shown to exist besides that firmament which is said to have been made after the second day, or that dry land which was afterwards called earth.

Origen, De Principiis (On First Principles) Background

For it is certain that the firmament is not spoken of, nor the dry land, but that heaven and earth from which this present heaven and earth which we now see afterwards borrowed their names.

Arnobius, Against the Heathen Background

...r regions? And since it is not in your power to say or explain for what purpose you live under this vault of heaven, stop believing that anything belongs to you. For the things that happen are not brought about for the sake of one part, but with regard to the good of the whole.

Genesis 1:6 Direct teaching

And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.

Genesis 1:7 Direct teaching

And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.

Genesis 1:8 Supporting witness

And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day.

Genesis 1:14 Supporting witness

And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth, to divide between day and night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and for years.

Genesis 1:17 Supporting witness

And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,

Psalms 19:1 Supporting witness

The heavens declare the glory of God; And the firmament shows His handiwork.

Isaiah 40:22 Supporting witness

It is He who sits above the circle of the earth, And its inhabitants are like grasshoppers, Who stretches out the heavens like a curtain, And spreads them out like a tent to dwell in.

Psalms 104:2 Supporting witness

covering yourself with light as with a garment, stretching out the heavens like a tent.

Job 22:14 Supporting witness

Thick clouds veil him, so that he does not see, and he walks on the vault of heaven.’

Proverbs 8:28 Supporting witness

when he made firm the skies above, when he established the fountains of the deep,

2 Peter 3:5 Supporting witness

For this they willingly are ignorant of, that by the word of God the heavens were of old, and the earth standing out of the water and in the water:

Psalms 148:4 Supporting witness

Praise him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye waters that be above the heavens.

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Direct teaching

...ed Night. And there was evening and there was morning, the first day. And God said, "Let there be a firmament in the middle of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters," and it was so. And God made the firmament, and separated the waters under the firmament from the waters above the firmament. And God called the firmament Heaven, and God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was morning, the second day. And God said, "Let the water under heaven be gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear," and it was so. And the waters were gathered together into their places, and the dry land appeared. And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters He called Seas, and God saw that it was good. And God said, "Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed after its kind and in its likeness, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after its kind, whose seed is in itself, in its likeness," and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, the herb yielding seed after its kind, and the fruit tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after its kind, on the earth, and God saw that it was good. And there was evening and

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Supporting witness

In the very beginning, therefore, of the history and genesis of the world, the holy Scripture spoke not concerning this firmament [which we see], but concerning another heaven, which is to us invisible, after which this heaven which we see has been called firmament, and to which half the water was taken up that it might serve for rains, and showers, and dews to mankind.

Apostolic Constitutions, Apostolic Constitutions Supporting witness

...beginning, You brought the disordered parts into order. You divided the waters from the waters by a firmament, and put in them a spirit of life. You fixed the earth, stretched out the heaven, and arranged every creature with exact order. For by Your power, O Lord, the world is made beautiful. The heaven is fixed like an arch over us and made glorious with stars for our comfort in the darkness. The light also and the sun were begotten for the days and for the producing of fruit, and the moon for the changing of the seasons by its waxing and waning. One was called Night, and the other Day. And the firmament was set in the midst of the abyss, and You commanded the waters to be gathered together and the dry land to appear. But as for the sea itself, who can possibly describe it? It comes with fury from the ocean, yet it runs back again, being stopped by the sand at Your command. For You have said, "Thereby shall her waves be broken," Job 38:11. You have also made it able to support small and great creatures, and made it fit for ships to travel on. Then the earth became green and was planted with all kinds of flowers and with many different trees. And the shining lights, which nouris

Apostolic Constitutions, Apostolic Constitutions Supporting witness

...t like the covering of a tent, and founded the earth upon nothing by Your will alone; who fixed the firmament and prepared the night and the day; who brought light out of Your treasures, and when it departs brought darkness for the rest of the living creatures that move about in the world; who appointed the sun in heaven to rule the day, and the moon to rule the night, and placed in heaven the choir of stars to praise Your glorious majesty; who made the water for drinking and for cleansing, and the air in which we live for breathing and for the giving of sounds, by means of the tongue, which strikes the air, and the hearing which works with it, so as to perceive speech when it is received by it and falls upon it; who made fire for our comfort in darkness, to supply our needs, and so that we might be warmed and given light by it; who separated the great sea from the land, and made the sea fit for sailing and the land fit for walking, and filled the sea with small and great living creatures, and filled the land with the same, both tame and wild; who furnished it with many kinds of plants, crowned it with herbs, beautified it with flowers, and enriched it with seeds; who appointed

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Supporting witness

...hings, adorning them and supplying them with their proper and fitting instruments. For in the solid vault of heaven, He has awakened the light-bringing risings of the sun. He has filled the white globe of the moon in its monthly waxing as a comfort for the night. He also kindles the starry rays with the varied splendors of glistening light. He has willed all these things to circle the whole compass of the world in their proper courses, so as to bring about days, months, years, signs, seasons, and other benefits for the human race. On the earth also, He has raised up the highest mountains to their peaks. He has cast down valleys into the depths. He has smoothly leveled the plains. He has appointed the animal herds usefully for the various services of men. He has also established the oak trees of the woods for the future benefit of human use. He has brought forth harvests for food. He has opened the mouths of the springs and poured them into flowing rivers. And after these things, lest He should not also provide for the delight of the eyes, He has clothed all things with the various colors of flowers for the pleasure of those who look at them. Even in the sea itself, although it i

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Supporting witness

...se things, adorning them and supplying them with what was proper and fitting for each. In the solid vault of heaven, He has awakened the light-bringing risings of the sun. He has filled the white globe of the moon in its monthly waxing as a comfort for the night. He also kindles the starry rays with the varied splendors of shining light. He has willed all these things to move in their proper courses around the whole compass of the world, bringing about days, months, years, signs, seasons, and other benefits for the human race. On the earth also, He has raised the highest mountains into peaks, cast the valleys down into the depths, and smoothly leveled the plains. He has appointed the herds of animals for the various useful services of men. He has also established the oak trees of the woods for the future benefit of human use. He has brought forth harvests for food. He has opened the mouths of springs and poured them into flowing rivers. And after these things, so that He might also provide for the delight of the eyes, He has clothed all things with the various colors of flowers for the pleasure of those who look at them. Even in the sea itself, marvelous as it is in both size an

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Supporting witness

For in the solid vault of heaven He has both awakened the light-bringing Sunrisings;

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Supporting witness

For in the solid vault of heaven He has both awakened the light-bringing Sunrisings;

Early Liturgies, Divine Liturgy of St. Mark Supporting witness

who has made the heaven out of waters, and adorned it with choirs of stars;

Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Heathen Background

And again through Isaiah: "Who shall measure heaven with a span, and the whole earth with his hand?" Isaiah 40:12. Look at God's greatness, and be filled with amazement. Let us worship Him, of whom the prophet says, "Before Your face the hills shall melt, as wax melts before the fire!" Isaiah 64:1-2. This, he says, is the God whose throne is heaven, and His footstool the earth. And if He opens heaven, trembling will seize you. Isaiah 66:1. Will you hear too what this prophet says about idols? "And they shall be made a spectacle in the face of the sun, and their carcasses shall be food for the birds of heaven and the wild beasts of the earth. And they shall rot before the sun and the moon, which they have loved and served. And their city shall be burned down." He says too that the elements and the world shall be destroyed. "The earth," he says, "shall grow old, and the heaven shall pass away; but the word of the Lord endures forever." What then, when again God wishes to show Himself through Moses: "Behold, behold, that I Am, and there is no other God beside Me. I will kill, and I will make to live. I will strike, and I will heal. And there is none who shall deliver out of My hands."

Theophilus of Antioch, Connection to Genesis 2:1 Supporting witness

On the fourth day the luminaries were made; because God, who possesses foreknowledge, knew the follies of the vain philosophers, that they were going to say, that the things which grow on the earth are produced from the heavenly bodies... In order, therefore, that the truth might be obvious, the plants and seeds were produced prior to the heavenly bodies.